history of the catapult...

Published: February 10 2008 on Helium


The catapult answered humanity's need to propel a missile effectively over a great distance with some "mechanical" assistance. It is essentially an offshoot of the crossbow and entails a machine that cannot be carried. Since ancient times, the style and size of this device has varied. But the main usage has always been some form of attack on a target, mostly in times of warfare.

The idea of the catapult comes from the humble sling shot. Some form of "twine" between the fork of a sturdy twig can hurl a stone with deadly accuracy. In the Bible, David's use of such a device against Goliath is only one record of many in ancient literatures.

China has the earliest known record of the catapult. In 3rd-4th century B.C. China, this catapult was much like a crossbow with a swinging arm mounted on a pivot. This appeared in what was known as the Warring States period of China's history. The Greek town of Syracuse in Sicily is another contender, about this time, for having the first catapult. This was in the era of the Peloponnesian Wars between Athens and Sparta and their allies. It was also the era of the tyrant Dionysios.

At this time, some sources claim that the term catapult referred to a "dart thrower" and a "ballista" referred to a stone thrower, but by the 4th century A.D. the two terms swapped meanings. www.en.wikipedia.org

The ballista is possibly the first large, siege-like catapult. It comprised "two wooden arms, tightly wound ropes and a cord to assist in the hurling of deadly projectiles, such as spears, at an enemy." www.medieval-castle-siege-weapons.com Phillip of Macedonia, father of Alexander the Great, is credited with its first use in about 358B.C. when, at the tender age of 21, he assembled a formidable military force against the threatening Illyrians in the north. It included a phalanx bearing 6 meter long spears (deadly to run into) and the ballista created for extra destructive impact.

The mangonel or onager is the Romans' contribution to catapult history. The mangonel was not really an efficient weapon, because it could only hurl up to a 6lb weight and lots of its energy was wasted arcing high in the air before hitting the target. They were usually mounted on ships and hurled burning pitch to set fire to enemy ships.
The Romans also added wheels to the Greek ballista.

However, the deadliest catapult of all is accredited to 12th century France and became a popular weapon of choice for Christians and Muslims alike. It was known as the trebuchet. This siege machine used counterweights (up to 20 tons) to maximize the velocity of objects hurled. One dark use of this machine was to use people as missiles. "The trebuchet is also believed to be an early biological weapon, as armies would load the trebuchet with corpses riddled with diseases like the Black Plague and hurl them into areas under siege in the hopes of infecting large numbers of their enemies." www.thedigitalbeat.com Dead animals were sometimes a favored missile too.

France was the first European country to use catapults extensively in warfare. Her wars introduced the catapult to more of Europe. "Catapults history notes that the weapons were introduced to England in 1216 during the Siege of Dover - as were many other types of siege weapons. Louis the Dauphin of France crossed the Channel with a large force and laid siege to Dover Castle making a violent and incessant attack on the castle walls. He used the Catapults against the walls and men of Dover Castle." www.middle-ages.org.uk England adopted the catapult as a war machine shortly afterwards.

By the Middle Ages, 3 main forms of the catapult were in use for warfare. The ballista now looked like a giant crossbow, depending on tension for speed and accuracy. It relied on a straight trajectory. The mangonel and trebuchet relied on greatest area of impact from an arced trajectory. The mangonel launched missiles from a bowl-shaped bucket placed at the end of a long usually wooden arm of the mangonel. "The massive Trebuchet consisted of a lever and a sling and was capable of hurling stones weighing 200 pounds with a range of up to about 300 yards" www.middle-ages.org.uk One version, created by King Edward I's engineer in England, was regarded as the most powerful of the trebuchets. It was called Warwolf.

In the Middle Ages, right up to the wars of Napoleon in the early 19th century, various models of the trebuchet were created and utilized as war machines. The ballista was still used to hurl large rocks into castle walls with dubious accuracy, but with the possibility of deadly effect.

We may like to believe that catapult history officially terminated when cannons and guns evolved. But that is not strictly true. In World War I jungle warfare, bent trees were used as catapults. And in World War II, grenade catapults were utilized. Military aircraft are launched from ships, based on the catapult principle. Enthusiasts of war machines like to recreate working models of catapults.

And catapult amusements still exist. Rides in many carnivals use the catapult concept. In the rural town of Landsborough, 76km north of Brisbane, Australia, one of the tourist attractions is a Bungy Bullet. "Thrill-seekers may enjoy the sensation of being shot 50 metres in the air in just one second on the Bungy Bullet, attaining a thrust of 4 Gs. This is, in essence, an open capsule, securely seating two people, which is literally flung into the air via a huge catapult." www.smh.com.au

In the U.S. a "catapult car" competition is held annually.

Catapults may appear to be a simple project based on the laws of physics, but through history, the best models have won wars and saved countries. I find it strange though, that the Vikings, a warlike marauding people, have no record of using catapults. And the ancient Egyptian shadouf, used to get water from irrigation channels, is actually a form of catapult NOT used for warlike purposes.


Sources
www.medieval-castle-siege-weapons.com
http://codesmiths.com/siege/mangonel.htm
www.angelfire.com

characteristics of fantasy literature...

Published: February 23 2008 on Helium


Fantasy literature characteristics have "moved" only a little over the years. In ancient times, super heroes like Jason sailing in search of a golden fleece and Theseus slaying a minotaur have become Harry Potter seeking a philosopher's stone. Gods and goddesses have become wizards and genies. Different words cloaking similar imaginative concepts.

Fantasy literature sails the realms of a dreaming soul. It is one of three genres often referred to as speculative fiction. The other two are science fiction and horror. However "the world of fantasy is not a dream world, a never-never land, but a world that matches ours in reality. The characters confront the same terrors, choices and dilemmas that we do." www.religion-online.org Fantasy literature spins its own reality of landscape, character, chance and circumstance.
All characteristics are built into a dreamscape.

The first dreamscape characteristics evolved with epic fantasy. It claims to be the first recorded genre of humanity. And epic fantasy was born in poetry. There is the ancient world of "Epic of Gilgamesh". It is a cycle of poems, gathered from oral traditions, that has survived from the 3rd millennium B.C. And there is the epic poetry of Homer with his famed "Odyssey" and "Iliad" of about 800B.C. They also sprang from oral traditions. Such poetry is termed a primary or primal epic. But Virgil's "Aeneid" is a crafted (or secondary) epic. It tells the story of Aeneas' Mediterranean Sea wanderings after the fall of besieged Troy. Fate predestines his long journey, over-riding even the interference of the gods. "Fate, to Virgil's Roman audience, is a divine, religious principle that determines the course of history and has culminated in the Roman Empire." www.sparknotes.com

An epic fantasy features a larger than life hero on a larger than life journey bristling with incredible adventure. Often, in classic epics, there are gods and goddesses supporting or cutting down the hero. Often, especially in epic poetry, one of the 9 Muses (daughters of Zeus) is first invoked to bless the telling of the narrative. (More modern epics may replace gods and goddesses with an elemental power from the earth or sun.) And often there is an atmosphere of historical and eternal importance in the telling of the tale. In more modern times, J. R. R. Tolkiens' "The Hobbit" is an example of an epic fantasy.

High fantasy is epic fantasy involving complex worlds and dangerous quests for some form of trophy or for the resolving of monumental chaos. It is a world where diverse heroes share one goal. J. R. R. Tolkiens' "The Lord of the Rings" is an example of high fantasy.

So, the earliest characteristics of fantasy literature involved a super hero, deities and a sense of noble purpose or quest played out in some intricate, long-lasting journey.

But all manner of characterization is possible in fantasy literature. In Frank L. Baum's "Wizard of Oz", a cowardly lion, a scarecrow, a tin man, munchkins, Glinda the good witch and a Wicked Witch of the West are characterized. Yet, Toto the dog remains Toto the dog, with the important role of rocking (with a little help from a tornado) young Dorothy's physical world, on a Kansas farm, into the fantasy world of Oz.

And often such a broad canvas of characterization presents symbolism. "Salman Rushdie draws the connection that Dorothy's last name is "Gale," which is a very strong wind. According to Joey Green's Zen interpretation of The Wizard of Oz, "The cyclone becomes a physical manifestation of Dorothy Gale's inner struggle for self-awareness, the result of the 'gale' winds storming through her psyche." www.turnmeondeadman.net The Wizard of Oz himself has a different appearance for each character. To the Cowardly Lion he is a ball of fire, but to Dorothy, he is a giant head. The Wizard tries to be all things to all people. And Toto symbolizes the enigmatic thread, the "Jacob's Ladder" that connects the human soul with other worlds; even inner worlds.

Characters in fantasy literature could easily be images of anyone in real life. Anyone could be a Dorothy desperately needing some magical joy. Anyone could be the lion longing for some inner strength. Mothers could possibly relate to the wizard.

Sometimes, events in fantasy literature can be a haunting, mythical version of reality. The Yellow Brick Road symbolizes pilgrimage; perhaps like the pilgrims in Chaucer's medieval "Canterbury Tales"; perhaps like the traders on the ancient Silk Road.

Importantly, fantasy literature does not always mean an escapist world. It can be one where we may take some time to see our own world differently; even more clearly.

At this point, it is worthwhile to note that fantasy literature is not restricted to young readers. There is often enough adult theme and symbolism to interest adults, while the storyline can stand magically alone and suit a child's interest. In short, the child-adult classification in fantasy literature is often incidental.

But not all fantasy literature glitters with Baum's idea of a fantastic, symbolic Oz. There are other characteristics of fantasy literature.

Light magic in one fantasy can be the dark, ominous supernatural of spells, curses and potions in another. Or, the two may co-exist in some war of worlds.

The classic fantasy of fairy tale may be laden with elves and pixies; princes and princesses; a talking tree and a horse with wings. But a dark fantasy may have ghosts, zombies, shape changers, werewolves and vampires creating a sense of bold adventure through a world of fear and threat.

Medieval fantasy may be laden with knights, swords, troubadours, castles, grim battle scenes and fair maidens in distress.

And newest to fantasy literature is urban fantasy, where any of these elements may be transposed onto a more cosmopolitan but surreal modern world.

But common to all these genres and sub-genres of fantasy literature is a sense of wonder; almost child-like wonder in those things that could be.

Wonder is a major, critical element in fantasy literature.

Dorothy's song, in the movie version of "The Wizard of Oz", explains the characteristics of fantasy literature well:


When all the world is a hopeless jumble
And the raindrops tumble all around
Heaven opens a magic lane
When all the clouds darken up the skyway
There's a rainbow highway to be found
Leading from your window pane
To a place behind the sun
Just a step beyond the rain
Somewhere over the rainbow way up high
There's a land that I've heard of once in a lullaby
Somewhere over the rainbow skies are blue
And the dreams that you dare to dream
Really do come true
                                                                         - "Somewhere Over the Rainbow"

Jane Goodall...

Published: June 2 2007 on Helium
 


Jane Goodall is primarily known for her 30 years of work with chimpanzees in Tanzania. She was nominated by palaeontologist and archaeologist Dr Louis Leakey of Nairobi Kenya. Her brief, furthering Leakey's own studies on Africa (not Asia or Europe) being the the crucible of humanity, was to explore the link between chimpanzees and humans.

However, there were elements in her earlier life which ensured that the meeting with Leakey was more than just a lucky break for her. She was born in London, England in 1934, just before World War II. Her family moved to France at the outbreak of the war in 1939, but the stay was short. Hitler invaded France and the Goodalls moved to the seaside town of Bournemouth, back in England. Jane adored the outdoors, loved Tarzan stories and was fasinated by the jungle. After all, her father had been stationed with the military in the Singapore jungles. He had some stories to tell.

By the age of 11, Jane made it well known she wanted to live in Africa. She grabbed the opportunity to visit a girlfriend who had moved to Kenya. She needed work and applied to be Dr Louis Leakey's secretary. In fact, it was Louis' lucky break to find Jane. She accompanied Louis and his wife on treks for fossils in the Serengeti plains. Jane had grown up in a Christian household, so she and Louis empathised in their quest to find a link between science and religion. It was then that Louis selected her, based on her meticulous sense of recording details, to do a particular study of chimpanzees.

And so began an incredible adventure for Jane, and for those of us who have learnt of her discoveries. With no credentials other than passion and enthusiasm, she accepted Louis' suggestion to complete a PhD in ethnology from Cambridge University in 1965. She is only one of 8 people to earn such a degree without a bachelor's preceding it. The year before, she had married a Dutch photographer from National Geographic, but the marriage was brief. In 1975, she remarried. He was the director of National Parks in Tanzania. But he died of cancer a few years later. It seemed, her life was her work with the chimpanzees. Her spiritual needs found peace there too.

Today, she has an institute named after her, she supports animal rights and conservation and emabarks on lecture tours. She still lives in her childhood home in Bournemouth, as well as in Tanzania. Jane has been awarded the Albert Schweitzer Award 1987, the Encyclopedia Britannica Award 1989, and the Kyoto Prize for Science 1990.

Some people confuse Jane Goodall with another primatologist, Dian Fossey, who studied the gorillas in Rwanda. Dian was two years older than Jane; she was murdered in 1985. Both women were initially supported by Dr Louis Leakey. In fact, there was a third woman. She was Birute Galdikas, who researched orang-utans in Borneo. They are often referred to as "Leakey's Angels".



But it is Jane Goodall's work that has reached far beyond just a study of chimpanzees. Jane has used her knowledge to help and teach the world to appreciate animals and nature. There are "Wildlife Awareness Weeks" which aid conservation by providing jobs and supporting local economies. Her "Roots and Shoots" program introduces children to respecting and understanding all living things.

different types of art...

Published: May 11 2007 on Helium



Art is an interpretation of a particular space. It aims to stimulate the senses.
* Clip art
* Card art
* Photography

Art aims to pleasure and heighten and challenge the visual senses.
* Architecture homes and public buildings
* Sculpture
* Painting
* Art galleries

Art may aim to awaken new senses.
* Music
* Dance
* Video clips

Art may attempt to create exacting rhythms.
* Synchronised swimming
* Dressage

Art may renew, refresh and even recreate the self image.
* Hair styles
* Make up
* Clothing fashions and accessories

Art may be a sustained atmosphere for leisure delight.
* Malls
* Atmosphere in restaurants and cafes

Art may be a stylistic presentation on a particular theme.
* Expos

Art may be a subversive connection between marketer and buyer.
* Posters and billboards
* Newspaper and magazine advertisements
* Tourist brochures
* Newspaper and website layouts
* Boutique motels

Art may be an attractive mix of quality material, design, shape and colour attracting a buyer.
* Electrical goods
* Clocks and watches
* Carpet and tiles
* Furniture
* Floral arrangements

Art may be a special sense of feng shui in key rooms of the home
* Bathrooms
* Kitchens
* Bedrooms

Art may be the sense of peace deliberated generated by a power source
* Lights and lighting effects
* Candles and candle glows

So far, it seems art is some kind of manufactured man-made interpretation, some rearrangement of reality, awakening new responses to that reality.
But there is always the art of nature herself; the moody, mischievous, delightful living art of nature.



The art of nature is timeless.

diet and behaviour of koalas...

Published: June 3 2007 on Helium
 


Koalas are those lovely grey, fluffy "non bears" that most tourists to Australia must see up close. They are marsupials, closely related to the wombat, and are native to Australia, mostly in south eastern Queensland. There are scattered small colonies in central Queensland and down the eastern seaboard of Australia. In areas like the south of Sydney, colonies are under threat of new estate developments. Many local lobby groups attempt to protect these animals and even try to tempt them to new, less threatened habitats. Major zoos around the world have an example of koalas in the zoo community.

These adorable animals may look fascinating and cute, but to expect equally intriguing information on their diet and behaviour may mean disappointment. There are about 600 species of eucalypts in Australia. The koala selects but a few. And the diet of a koala is totally based on the consumption of eucalypt leaves. Even water is absorbed from the leaves. They rarely drink water. In short, their diet looks bland and poor, and it is.

A poor diet usually means low energy levels. Yes! The koala is a master of leisure. Inactive, sleeping leisure! With rump jammed in the fork of a tree for balance and armchair comfort, the koala sleeps 16 to 18 hours a day. Activity is usually reserved for the sunset hours and that activity means munching on leaves. Considering this must be about the time allotted for more intimate activities as well, the koala seems to have a rather plain old existence.

To try to extend further comment on koala behaviour, the traditional view of koalas is that they live alone or in small groups. But the small group label is a bit misleading. They hardly socialize or interact or help each other. It is more just a small group of existence, perhaps based on sharing the favoured, perhaps rare type of eucalypt leaves in a particular area. Having said that, koalas are territorial because they scratch and scent mark trees. This would be a warning to other koalas to stay away, yet no one has recorded koalas actually fighting over territory.
Perhaps they just don't have the energy anyways.

Young koalas are born into their mother's pouch and are usually about an inch long. They are in the pouch for 6 months and then are carried on their mother's back for another 6 months.
I guess baby learns from a young age to feel the joys of doing nothing.

But occasionally, there are the odd stories that seem to break traditions. I live on a mountain, by the sea, down south of Victoria (where there are supposed to be hardly any koalas in the wild!) While driving home, at sunset, up the mountain, just a few weeks ago, I saw a small group of people pointing cameras at a rather leafless, small tree near the look-out. And, in the tree, calmly "posing", was a rather beefy koala. Everyone took care not to frighten it. But the koala seemed calm anyways, just watching us watching him. And then, after a few good camera shots of his best profile, he calmly ambled down the tree and wandered down the mountain with a "proud, rock and roll" gait.

Koalas might symbolize Australia, yet, perhaps there may still be quite a great deal we don't fully know about koala behaviour and perhaps even diet.
What is in the selected eucalypt leaves that makes them so special?
The koala may appear to be an armchair traveller, but where really does the koala travel?

Important Women in Medieval History...

Published: july 28 2007 on Helium



From the "Dark Ages" of the 4th century to the awakening of the Renaissance in the 15th century, women dared to go against the patriarchal threads in the social and political tapestry of their day. This was the Medieval era when most rulers and leaders were male, teachers were male and most writers were male. In spite of adversity, the Medieval era gave rise to women of power, enterprising pioneer women, and women who simply dared to be different.

For each century in the Medieval era, there was an outstanding woman, imprinting her mark on time.

In the 4th century, Hypatia of Alexandria, Egypt was a renowned mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, scientist and philosopher in her own lifetime. Her work in mathematics gives us our first, surviving valuable insights into the minds of ancient mathematicians.

The 5th to 9th centuries are significant times for women in power. In the early 6th century, Emperor Justinian I of the flowering Byzantine Empire raised Theodora, a common comic actress, to upper class status so he could marry her. Once her position of power was secured, Theodora became a voice for women's rights. She persuaded Justinian to delete the law forbidding upper and lower classes to intermarry. Also in the 6th century, Suiko became the first Empress of Japan. She is credited with establishing and promoting Buddhism in Japan. In the 7th century, Lady Zac Kuk was on the throne of the Mayan Empire in Palenque, modern day Mexico. In Mayan history, she was one of only two Mayan women to rule alone. The other was her grandmother. And finally, Irene of Athens, in the 8th to 9th centuries was regent for her son. She is remembered mostly for restoring once banned icons to the Christian church. In the Eastern Orthodox Church she is revered as a saint.

The 10th and 11th centuries are marked by the exploits of unusual women. In 10th century Rome, Mazoria managed to get the reigning Pope imprisoned and suffocated. Her 20 year old son succeeded as the next Pope John XI. In the 11th century Byzantine Empire, Anna Comnena recorded details of the First Crusade in 1095, supporting Jerusalem from Muslim control, and she recorded Turkish attacks on the Byzantine capital, Constantinople. Her sister-in-law, Bertha Comnena, overseered the building of a pilgrim hospital at Constantinople. In 11th century Solerno, Italy, Trotula was highly acclaimed for her studies in medicine. And in England, also in the 11th century, Lady Godiva executed her legendary horse ride through Coventry, protesting against heavy taxes on the English lower classes.

The 12th century represents a remarkable wave of important, educated women. Hildegard of Bingen became known as the "Sybil of the Rhine". She founded a convent, composed music, (much New Age music is similar to her melodies), published and practiced the healing powers of plants and was a notable visionary. She has been beatified but not canonized. Heloise was a 12th century philosopher, but is best known for her impassioned letters to her lover Abelard, also a French philosopher. They were separated tragically by her uncle's vengeance. Some say this could have been Shakespeare's inspiration for "Romeo and Juliet". And Marie de France was a famed 12th century poetess.

But it is in the 13th to 15th centuries that we find the giants' among women. Part of the reason for their giant status, admittedly, is we have more recorded biographical detail of their lives. Eleanor of Aquitane became Queen of France AND England. She even accompanied her husband, Louis XVII, on the Second Crusade. Julian (or Juliana) of Norwich became a famed mystic. And Margery Kempe produced the first known, published autobiography, yet she could not read. Her work represents a pilgrimage through England, Europe and Scandinavia. Her journey includes a visit to Julian of Norwich.

The Medieval era closes with two women who seem to represent remarkable, self-driven "woman power". Joan of Arc, or the Maid of Orleans, was a mere peasant girl. Yet, strengthened by visions, she led an army helping the Dauphin secure the throne of France. And Christine de Pisan initiated the first recorded history of women, "The Book of the City of the Ladies".

Important women in Medieval times proved that even under patriarchal social conditions, the individual voice cannot be repressed. There are enough important women in medieval times to remind us that society may have rules, but the unique individual will always find a way to be known and heard, eventually.



Sources
www.womenofhistory.blogspot.com
www.women'shistory.about.com
www.distinguishedwomen.com
www.historymedren.about.com
www.teach12.com

Great Fire of London 1666...

Published: July 10 2007 on Helium



The early 17th century was the worst of times for the English people. There was civil war in 1642 and King Charles I was beheaded in 1649. Oliver Cromwell's replacement republican government of 1653-1658 was puritanical and now, the new the monarchy of Charles II was not so popular. In 1665, England was "slapped" with the Great Plague. And then, in 1666, came the ultimate "punishment", the Great Fire of London. Medieval superstitions and belief in omens were rampant.
The possible significance of the numbers "666" did not go unnoticed.

Novelist, Daniel Defoe, commented, after the plague, "God had not sufficiently scourged the city" and so sent the fire.

The Great Fire of 2nd September 1666 sparked from Thomas Farryner's bakery in Pudding Lane, inner London, by the Thames River. It had plenty of "fuel" to quickly turn it into a firestorm, lasting five days. This fuel comprised both physical fuel and the "fuel" of poor resources to fight the fire. And the weather helped too.
"After two rainy summers in 1664 and 1665, London had lain under an exceptional drought since November 1665, and the wooden buildings were tinder-dry after the long hot summer of 1666."

The fire ravaged London's narrow, cobblestone, unguttered, undrained medieval streets. Buildings were made of flammable timber, wattle and daub, plaster and pitch; and they were close together. Many 6-7 storey buildings had "jetties" which were upper floors jutting out across narrow alleyways. Often, these jetties were almost touching the opposite building. Inside could be found flammable, everyday items such as straw for floor coverings, tallow and firewood for the hearth. Further, most buildings did not have chimneys to release smoke.

Of particular note, this area was a part of the port of London. Here were warehouses filled with gunpowder, (left over from the English Civil War), stored in wooden barrels. Imports of oil, fabrics, fats, turpentine, coal, alcohol and sugar were also stored here. And in between were the tenements of the poor; just tarred paper or rickety wooden buildings.

London had experienced a great fire in 1220, and had endured further outbreaks since that time. You would think, by now, there would be some worthwhile fire fighting equipment. Some "fire engines" had wheels, but many were mounted on sleds. And the fire engine itself was little more than an inflexible pump that could be connected to a series of elm pipes running from a high water tower at Cornhill. The tower was fed by the river at high tide. Amazingly, 30,000 homes in London were part of the elm pipe system. But connection was costly. There is no evidence, at such a critical time, that the network could be utilized. The water wheels under London Bridge were alight, so river water could not be pumped to the tower. (But surely there would have been some stored water?)

Instead, old-fashioned firehooks were used. (They were stored in every parish church along with long ladders, axes and leather buckets.) Firehooks were selected to pull down burning buildings or to create a firebreak by demolishing an area of buildings.

It is estimated there were only 5 to 17 deaths from the fire. This is incredible considering that London Bridge was the only way out to the south side of the Thames. Already, this was proven a deathtrap in the 1632 fire, for people lived on the bridge. The only escape was through one of the 8 gates in the 5.5m ancient Roman wall surrounding the city. The strength of the heat was horrific. It is recorded that the chains and locks on the gates melted.

And so, in despair, the likes of Samuel Pepys watched the fire burn from the safety of theTower of London, remembering every shocking detail and recording it in a diary for posterity. John Evelyn recorded that Londoners were simply "running about like distracted creatures without at all attempting to save their goods". www.authorsden.com

After 5 days, the fire finally burnt out at Temple Church near Holborn Bridge. Perhaps desperately blowing up fuel with gunpowder helped. Perhaps the fire simply burnt itself out. But the end result was that four fifths of London was destroyed and poor King Charles had lost his major source of revenue, the customs revenue of the port. He called upon Christopher Wren, the current great architect, to reconstruct London. Wren built 49 churches and St Paul's Cathedral. Future homes were required to be constructed of brick or white stone. Owners insured properties against fire and insurance companies employed people to put out fires. It was a "win-win" situation.

But there was one more twist to the story. Robert Hubert confessed to lighting the fire and was subsequently hanged. Yet he could not describe the bakery or show where it was. Superstition, it seemed, was still rife! Someone, anyone had to be blamed!

Indeed, it seems that the Great Fire of 1666 may not have been so great if there had been more control of many types of fuel. There was too much fuel lying around in enclosed places. There were too many buildings that could become fuel. There was no organized response to fire and little to no worthwhile equipment. And the final fuel, superstition, impelled many who thought this was a curse on the English, to simply run rather than fight. But perhaps, the Great Fire was a blessing. Perhaps it helped to diminish the spread of the plague. Unsanitary, medieval buildings sorely needed demolition.

Unlike the fire of 1212, when about 3,000 were killed, the Great Fire of 1666 claimed but a few lives. Unpopular King Charles took over operations from London's incompetent mayor. He directed firebreaks and used navy rations to feed those who fled from burning homes. Perhaps rather than take life, the fire gave life, even to Charles!



Sources
www.angliacampus.com
www.europeanhistory.about.com
www.answers.com