Historical Legacy of Rameses the Great...

Published: August 17 2007 on Helium


Apart from the many structures, still standing today, bearing the name of Rameses, there are a few extra "surprises" built into Rameses' amazing Egyptian legacy from the 12th century B.C. The boy king (he possibly came to the throne at 15, though some sources say 25) from a common military family, was the last great pharaoh to rule a mighty Egypt. He was Rameses the Great!

Rameses II, of the 19th Dynasty, ruled Egypt for 67 years. He was a master of strategy and propaganda; strong-willed and a visionary. He was an entrepreneur, a military leader, a man of peace, a builder of flamboyant structures and a great lover. He was brazen enough to establish a new capital for Egypt, far from the traditional aristocratic Thebes. This new capital, in the Nile Delta, was called Per Rameses meaning "House of Rameses". He even looked different from the average Egyptian; of taller build (about 5 feet 8-10 inches) topped with a mane of flaming red hair.

At first glance, looking at the many buildings bearing Rameses' name, it would seem he must have been the only great builder in the whole history of ancient Egypt. But some great temples existed before his time. Rameses simply re-invented them. He wanted his name well-stamped on Egyptian history.

An existing temple at Luxor suffered the Rameses make-over. He added a new entrance with 4 statues of himself. If this sounds audacious, Rameses managed more. In fact, almost every temple in every Egyptian town was revamped and given the Rameses "stamp". One temple dedicated to himself and one to his loved wife Nefartari are actually two mountains, side by side, converted into temples. So, is this the legacy of a self-opiniated madman or a genius?

Rameses can't take all the glory for being an inspired builder. He modeled himself on Thutmose III, the "Warrior Pharaoh" who initiated the new Egyptian Empire and Amenhotep III who first initiated the "big is beautiful" idea. Both pharaohs were of the previous 18th Dynasty. Rameses may have surpassed Amenhotep in number of temples and monuments, but he sacrificed quality. His legacy is not a representation of the best ancient Egyptian building, especially when it came to the detail of relief carvings. Admittedly, inside decoration was reported as "exquisite", a testament to Rameses' enormous wealth.

Another dimension of Rameses' legacy involves his remarkable treaty with the warring, territory hungry Hittites from Anatolia (Turkey). At first, this would seem to be the most complete ancient record in existence of a treaty between ancient peoples. But, just prior to signing this treaty, he led a campaign known as the Battle of Kadesh. It was not a glorious battle for the Egyptians. Only last minute reinforcements pushed the Hittites back. But the Rameses' records don't tell quite the same story. Some records claim Rameses defeated the Hittites single-handedly because his men took flight. He alone was in control of Hittite submission and could control the terms of the treaty. As part of the treaty, he accepted a Babylonian princess as a wife. But in truth, he lost claims of territory in Syria. The glorious victory depicted on historical records was just an incredible propaganda exercise.

Rameses' inscriptions attest to Rameses the great lover. They claim he fathered 80 sons and 60 daughters. Indeed, in his own lifetime, Rameses was ensuring he left an enduring legacy of his lifetime. (He groomed 12 heirs, but they died in Rameses' own lifetime! His succeeding son began his rule in his 60's!)

So far, evidence points to a legacy of extravagance. But there is a possible, darker side to Rameses' legacy. Many experts wonder if Rameses has connections with Biblical records. Was he the pharaoh of Egypt in the Biblical Exodus story who banished Moses and the Hebrews? If so, it is clear that Rameses must has achieved his building frenzy utilizing not just a wealth of money, but a wealth of slaves! Probably Hebrew slaves! But if Rameses was so keen on winning more territorial claim in Western Asia, as evident with the Hittite clashes, why does he not mention people in his own Egyptian kingdom who have connections there?

The legacy of Rameses the Great is a cocktail of fact and fiction; much of the fiction generated by Rameses himself. Rameses was a paradox of contradictions in his own lifetime. And experts still wonder what is the REAL legacy of Rameses the Great. Did he, in fact, spark a new wave of history of Biblical proportion? Whatever the answer to this question, one fact remains. Rameses is part of the great Egyptian era which still fires and fascinates the imagination today!


Sources
www.touregypt.net
www.pbs.org
www.home.earthlink.net
www.kingtutone.com

Countries Involved in World War I...

Published: July 9 2007 on Helium


The countries involved in World War I, (1914-1918), were all there for diverse reasons. Some were there, fervently feeling a sense of nationalism, a new patriotic spirit awakening in the later years of the 19th century. Some were there defending imperialistic acquisitions or prospects. Some were there to test land and sea military strength. Some were there supporting an empire or mother country. And some were driven to war with varying degrees of all three agendas, plus, perhaps, a sense of fear.

The war was triggered by a Bosnian revolutionary's assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife on 28th June 1914. But the major players in the war used this event as a catalyst to vent long term imperialistic and political tensions. In short, many countries joined for either their own particular grievances or a sense of duty bound up in colonial ties. Only the U.S. (originally neutral) entered the war under provocation. Finally, in 1917, President Woodrow Wilson committed the U.S. to the Allies because cargo boats were consistently attacked by the Germans. Germany "needled" the U.S. into the war.

The two major, opposing powers were known as the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance.

The Triple Entente, formed in 1907, became known, in the course of the war, as the Allies. The countries initially involved were Britain, France and Russia. Britain was regarded as having the strongest naval power. France had a credible land army. The United States joined this group in 1917. The Triple Alliance, formed in 1882, became known as the Central Powers. Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy were initially involved. Germany and Italy were newly unified in the late 19th century. It seemed they wished to "test" their power on a world scale. On the outbreak of war, Turkey joined this group, while Italy crossed over to the Allies.

Other countries involved in the war joined or supported one of these two groups.

On the Allies side, Britain was supported by her far reaching empire of British territories in Africa, Atlantic Islands, Australasia and Pacific Ocean, Canada, Falkland Islands, Singapore, Cyprus, Malta, Indian empire; Indian Ocean Islands -Andaman , Cocos, Mauritius, Nicobar, Seychelles; Middle East Arabia(protectorates), Kuwait, Oman, Newfoundland; West Indies. France was supported by her smaller empire including Morocco, Algeria, New Caledonia and Guadeloupe. Italy was supported by her African colonies of Italian Somaliland, Eritrea and Tripoli. Japan joined the Allies, but only played a small role in east Asia. Belgium and Portugal, originally wanting neutrality, reluctantly joined the Allies when surrounded by warring factions. (Amazingly, Spain remained neutral throughout the war!)

On the Central Powers side, Germany was supported by her empire including Cameroon, German East Africa, South West Africa (Namibia), Togoland; Bismarck Archipelgeo, Carolina Islands, Mariana Islands, Marshal Islands, Palau Islands and Samoa Islands. Of note, the German empire was only acquired late in the 19th century, well after the main imperial players Britain and France. Colonial support was a somewhat unknown, untested factor.

In total, over 100 countries were involved in this war. But not all countries were directly involved in the fighting. Some of the colonies, for example, acted as a source of military supply of armaments or as a reserve force. Other European countries, such as Poland, Belgium and Luxembourg, were drawn into the war because they were occupied by the Germans; but they also acted as a "corridor of escape" for the Allies.

Africa, being the great imperialistic vision of the major European powers in the 19th century, was divided by the war. Only Ethiopia and four small Spanish colonies were neutral.

Then, when the United States joined the war in 1917, most of the Central American countries followed. Brazil, in South America, independently declared war on Germany in 1917. Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia severed ties with Germany but did not get involved in the war.

The larger powers were involved in World War I because they wanted to vent nationalistic superiority, test military strength and assert imperialistic claims left over from the 19th century. Many of the smaller countries were drawn in to the war because they either had a sense of duty to a mother country or, being surrounded by "the heavies", felt impelled to take sides to protect their own safety.



Sources
www.europeanhistory.about.com
www.pokemonultimate.wanadoo.co.uk

history of the catapult...

Published: February 10 2008 on Helium


The catapult answered humanity's need to propel a missile effectively over a great distance with some "mechanical" assistance. It is essentially an offshoot of the crossbow and entails a machine that cannot be carried. Since ancient times, the style and size of this device has varied. But the main usage has always been some form of attack on a target, mostly in times of warfare.

The idea of the catapult comes from the humble sling shot. Some form of "twine" between the fork of a sturdy twig can hurl a stone with deadly accuracy. In the Bible, David's use of such a device against Goliath is only one record of many in ancient literatures.

China has the earliest known record of the catapult. In 3rd-4th century B.C. China, this catapult was much like a crossbow with a swinging arm mounted on a pivot. This appeared in what was known as the Warring States period of China's history. The Greek town of Syracuse in Sicily is another contender, about this time, for having the first catapult. This was in the era of the Peloponnesian Wars between Athens and Sparta and their allies. It was also the era of the tyrant Dionysios.

At this time, some sources claim that the term catapult referred to a "dart thrower" and a "ballista" referred to a stone thrower, but by the 4th century A.D. the two terms swapped meanings. www.en.wikipedia.org

The ballista is possibly the first large, siege-like catapult. It comprised "two wooden arms, tightly wound ropes and a cord to assist in the hurling of deadly projectiles, such as spears, at an enemy." www.medieval-castle-siege-weapons.com Phillip of Macedonia, father of Alexander the Great, is credited with its first use in about 358B.C. when, at the tender age of 21, he assembled a formidable military force against the threatening Illyrians in the north. It included a phalanx bearing 6 meter long spears (deadly to run into) and the ballista created for extra destructive impact.

The mangonel or onager is the Romans' contribution to catapult history. The mangonel was not really an efficient weapon, because it could only hurl up to a 6lb weight and lots of its energy was wasted arcing high in the air before hitting the target. They were usually mounted on ships and hurled burning pitch to set fire to enemy ships.
The Romans also added wheels to the Greek ballista.

However, the deadliest catapult of all is accredited to 12th century France and became a popular weapon of choice for Christians and Muslims alike. It was known as the trebuchet. This siege machine used counterweights (up to 20 tons) to maximize the velocity of objects hurled. One dark use of this machine was to use people as missiles. "The trebuchet is also believed to be an early biological weapon, as armies would load the trebuchet with corpses riddled with diseases like the Black Plague and hurl them into areas under siege in the hopes of infecting large numbers of their enemies." www.thedigitalbeat.com Dead animals were sometimes a favored missile too.

France was the first European country to use catapults extensively in warfare. Her wars introduced the catapult to more of Europe. "Catapults history notes that the weapons were introduced to England in 1216 during the Siege of Dover - as were many other types of siege weapons. Louis the Dauphin of France crossed the Channel with a large force and laid siege to Dover Castle making a violent and incessant attack on the castle walls. He used the Catapults against the walls and men of Dover Castle." www.middle-ages.org.uk England adopted the catapult as a war machine shortly afterwards.

By the Middle Ages, 3 main forms of the catapult were in use for warfare. The ballista now looked like a giant crossbow, depending on tension for speed and accuracy. It relied on a straight trajectory. The mangonel and trebuchet relied on greatest area of impact from an arced trajectory. The mangonel launched missiles from a bowl-shaped bucket placed at the end of a long usually wooden arm of the mangonel. "The massive Trebuchet consisted of a lever and a sling and was capable of hurling stones weighing 200 pounds with a range of up to about 300 yards" www.middle-ages.org.uk One version, created by King Edward I's engineer in England, was regarded as the most powerful of the trebuchets. It was called Warwolf.

In the Middle Ages, right up to the wars of Napoleon in the early 19th century, various models of the trebuchet were created and utilized as war machines. The ballista was still used to hurl large rocks into castle walls with dubious accuracy, but with the possibility of deadly effect.

We may like to believe that catapult history officially terminated when cannons and guns evolved. But that is not strictly true. In World War I jungle warfare, bent trees were used as catapults. And in World War II, grenade catapults were utilized. Military aircraft are launched from ships, based on the catapult principle. Enthusiasts of war machines like to recreate working models of catapults.

And catapult amusements still exist. Rides in many carnivals use the catapult concept. In the rural town of Landsborough, 76km north of Brisbane, Australia, one of the tourist attractions is a Bungy Bullet. "Thrill-seekers may enjoy the sensation of being shot 50 metres in the air in just one second on the Bungy Bullet, attaining a thrust of 4 Gs. This is, in essence, an open capsule, securely seating two people, which is literally flung into the air via a huge catapult." www.smh.com.au

In the U.S. a "catapult car" competition is held annually.

Catapults may appear to be a simple project based on the laws of physics, but through history, the best models have won wars and saved countries. I find it strange though, that the Vikings, a warlike marauding people, have no record of using catapults. And the ancient Egyptian shadouf, used to get water from irrigation channels, is actually a form of catapult NOT used for warlike purposes.


Sources
www.medieval-castle-siege-weapons.com
http://codesmiths.com/siege/mangonel.htm
www.angelfire.com